Zaɓuɓɓukan Gaskiya: Me Yasa Barin Kofa A Buɗe Hakanan Zabi Ne
Nazarin zaɓuɓɓukan gaske yana ɗaukar jarin dabaru a matsayin zaɓuɓɓuka: hakkin, amma ba wajibi ba, don faɗaɗa, jinkirta, mataki, rage, canza, ko barin wani alƙawari yayin da rashin tabbas ke warwarewa. An ƙirƙiri wannan kalmar ne ta Stewart Myers na MIT a cikin takardarsa ta 1977 a Journal of Financial Economics mai taken Determinants of Corporate Borrowing, yana amfani da tunanin farashin zaɓin kuɗi (Black-Scholes-Merton, 1973) ga jarin gaske; Avinash Dixit da Robert Pindyck's Investment under Uncertainty (1994) sun gina cikakken tsarin. Judy Lewent, CFO na Merck, ta bayyana a cikin wata hira ta 1994 da Harvard Business Review yadda kamfanin magunguna ya yi amfani da nazarin zaɓi don kimanta jarin bincike na mataki — saboda shirin magani jerin zaɓuɓɓuka ne, kowanne mataki yana sayen hakkin ci gaba, ba wani caca ɗaya ko komai ba. Mafi mahimmancin juyawa: a ƙarƙashin tunanin NPV na al'ada, rashin tabbas yana lalata ƙima; a ƙarƙashin tunanin zaɓi, rashin tabbas yana ƙirƙirar ƙima lokacin da aka iyakance rashi kuma za ka iya jira, mataki, ko barin. Jira yana da ƙima mai lissafi, haka nan kuma ikon barin. Ka'idar da ke sa zaɓuɓɓukan gaske su zama gaskiya ita ce sanya sunayen sharuɗɗan aiwatarwa a gaba — takamaiman sharuɗɗan da za a iya ganowa wanda za ka faɗaɗa, da kuma sharuɗɗan kashewa wanda za ka bar — saboda zaɓin barin da ba a taɓa aiwatarwa ba ba shi da ƙima. A aikace: kafin kowanne hukunci na ci gaba/ba ci gaba, sanya sunan nau'in zaɓin da zaɓin ya kasance, kimanta ƙimar jira a matsayin madadin bayyananne, kuma rubuta sharuɗɗan aiwatarwa a cikin rajistar hukunci don a riƙe matakai na gaba da su.
A cikin 1994, CFO na Merck ya gaya wa Harvard Business Review cewa kamfanin yana tantance zuba jari na bincike tare da farashin zaɓi, ba kawai NPV ba — saboda shirin magani yana da jerin hakkin ci gaba, ba wani caca duka ko komai ba. Wannan tunani ne na zaɓuɓɓuka na gaske: sassauci yana da ƙima mai lissafi, rashin tabbas na iya aiki a gare ku lokacin da aka iyakance rashi, kuma "jira" zaɓi ne tare da farashi, ba rashin yanke shawara ba.
- Hakkoki, ba wajibi ba — zuba jari na mataki yana sayen ikon ci gaba, fadada, ko barin hanya yayin da hazo ke tashi
- Rashin tabbas yana canza alama — NPV yana hukunta shi; zaɓuɓɓuka suna samun riba daga gare shi, lokacin da asarar ta kasance a iyaka kuma zaɓuɓɓuka suna nan.
- Jiran lokaci wata hanya ce — zaɓin jinkirta yana da ƙima wanda tsarin yanzu-ko-kada ya ɓata a hankali.
- Zaɓuɓɓuka suna buƙatar ƙa'idodin kisa — zaɓin barin da ba kowa ke amfani da shi ba ba shi da ƙima; bayyana sharuɗɗan aiwatarwa a gaba
Tsara mafi kyau, ingancin yanke shawara mafi kyau: guda biyar da suka haɗa kan hukunci, zaɓi, da kalubalantar kayan aikin da ke bayan manyan yanke shawara.
- 1.Decision Quality: The Six Elements of a Good Decision — Before You Know the Outcome
- 2.Business Decision Frameworks: Which One to Use, When — The Complete Chooser's Guide
- 3.Prospect Theory: Why Your Team Fears Losses Twice as Much as It Values Wins
- 4.Real Options: Why Keeping the Door Open Is a Decision TooKana nan
- 5.NPV Says Yes. Should You? What Discounted Cash Flow Can't Tell You
CFO wanda ya ƙayyade farashin bincike kamar zaɓin hannun jari
A cikin 1994, Harvard Business Review ta zauna tare da Judy Lewent, babban jami'in kudi na Merck — wanda a lokacin yake daga cikin kamfanonin da aka fi sha'awa a duniya — don tambayar yadda wani babban kamfanin magunguna ke yanke shawara kan waɗanne shirye-shiryen bincike na biliyan ɗari, na tsawon shekaru goma za a tallafa musu. Amsarta ba ta kasance da tsarin ragin kuɗi da aka koya a kowanne shirin MBA ba. Merck, ta bayyana, ta nazarci jarin bincike ta amfani da lissafin zaɓin kuɗi.
Hankali: shirin magani ba shi da jari guda ɗaya, yana da jerin su. Ƙananan jarin farko yana sayen hakkin — ba wajibi ba — na tallafawa mataki na gaba idan kimiyyar ta yi aiki. Mafi yawan shirye-shirye suna mutuwa da wuri da arha; kadan daga cikin waɗanda suka tsira suna tabbatar da na gaba, wanda ya fi girma. Idan aka kimanta a matsayin guda ɗaya mai ko komai NPV, kusan kowanne shirin matakin farko yana kama da mai nasara. Idan aka kimanta a matsayin jerin zaɓuɓɓuka, wannan bututun yana da riba a hankali — saboda kowanne mataki yana iyakance asarar yayin da yake kiyaye riba a rai.
Kana gudanar da caca a matakai ma, ko ka sanya farashi ko a'a: gwajin jirgi kafin a fitar da shi, gwajin kasuwa kafin masana'anta, daukar ma'aikaci guda kafin kungiyar. Tambayar ita ce ko tsarin yanke shawarar ka yana daraja wannan sassauci — ko kuma yana latsawa a hankali tare da takardar lissafi ta yanzu ko kadai.
Daga Lissafin Wall Street zuwa Ginin Masana'antu
Kalmar zaɓuɓɓukan gaske ta shafi Stewart Myers na MIT, wanda ya ƙirƙira ta a cikin takardarsa ta 1977 a Journal of Financial Economics mai taken Determinants of Corporate Borrowing. Abin da ya lura: babban ɓangare na ƙimar kamfani ba ya ƙunshe da kadarorin da aka tanada ba amma da damar — ikon yin zuba jari na gaba a kan sharuɗɗan da suka dace. Wadannan damar suna aiki kamar zaɓuɓɓukan kira akan kadarorin gaske, wanda ya nuna cewa juyin farashin zaɓuɓɓuka da Fischer Black, Myron Scholes, da Robert Merton suka fara a 1973 ya shafi fiye da takardun hannun jari.
Littafin Avinash Dixit da Robert Pindyck na 1994 mai taken "Zuba Jari a Karkashin Rashin Tabbas" ya juya wannan fahimta zuwa cikakken tsarin, tare da saƙo mai karfi ga masu bin NPV: lokacin da zuba jari ba zai iya komawa ba kuma za a iya jinkirta shi, ka'idar da aka saba — zuba jari duk lokacin da NPV ya kasance mai kyau — ba daidai bane. Yin alkawari yau yana kashe zaɓin yin alkawari gobe tare da ingantaccen bayani, kuma wannan zaɓin da ya mutu wani ainihin farashi ne da shafin lissafi ba ya nuna.
Zaɓuɓɓuka Shida da ke ɓoye a cikin Taswirar Hanyar ku
Zaɓuɓɓukan gaskiya suna cikin ƙananan tsarin ƙa'idodi. Sunan wanda kake riƙe da shi shine rabin binciken:
Jinkirta
Hakkin jira. Kasa da aka riƙe don ci gaba, ƙaddamar da samfur wanda aka tsara bisa ga shawarar ƙa'ida. Jira yana da farashi kuma yana sayen bayani — dukkan ɓangarorin suna cikin muhawara.
Mataki
Zaɓin Merck: raba ɗaya daga cikin alkawura zuwa ƙofofi, kowanne yana sayen haƙƙin ci gaba. Masu gwaji, fitar da matakai, kasuwancin da aka samar da kuɗi ta hanyar rabo.
Faɗaɗa
Hakkin haɓaka idan ya yi aiki: ƙarfin da za a iya ninka, kasuwar rairayin bakin teku da aka shiga wani ɓangare don ci gaban da yake ba da dama.
Kwantaragi
Hakkin rage girma cikin kyan gani: karɓar ƙarfi daga waje maimakon mallaka, kwangiloli masu sassauci akan alkawura masu tsauri.
Barin
Hakkin dakatar da kuma ceto. Zabi mafi daraja da kuma wanda aka fi kauce masa a yawancin fayiloli — saboda aiwatar da shi yana nufin mallakar tabbataccen asara.
Canji
Hakkin canza abubuwan da ake shigarwa, fitarwa, ko dandamali: hanyoyin samar da kayayyaki masu tushe biyu, tsarin gajimare da yawa, layukan kayayyaki masu juyawa.
Inda Tunanin NPV ke Karya Daraja a Sakatari
Babu wani abu daga cikin wannan da ya sa hanyar kudi mai rangwame ta zama ba daidai ba — yana sa ɗaya daga cikin tunanin da ba a faɗi ba ya zama ba daidai ba. NPV na al'ada yana ɗaukar jarin a matsayin yanzu ko kuma ba a taɓa samun sa ba kuma gudanarwa a matsayin mai shagala: ka sadaukar da komai yau, sannan ka kalli ko za a kawo kudaden da aka tsara ko a'a. A ƙarƙashin waɗannan tunanin, rashin tabbas na iya cutar da kai kawai, don haka mafi girman bambanci yana nufin mafi girman rangwame da hukunci mai ja.
Tunanin zaɓi yana juyawa alamar. Idan an iyakance asarar ku — zaku iya tsara, jinkirta, ko barin — to bambancin shine inda ƙimar take: makomar mummuna tana cost ɗin ku kawai kuɗin zaɓin, yayin da makomar mai kyau ke biya cikakke. Wannan shine dalilin da ya sa NPV mai tsauri ke rage kimar ainihin jarin da suka fi muhimmanci a ƙarƙashin rashin tabbas: bincike, dandamali, sabbin kasuwanni, komai da aka tsara. Lambar ba ta yi karya game da hanyoyin kuɗi ba; tana yin karya game da 'yancin ku na amsawa ga su — dalili guda ɗaya ƙarin da wannan ma'aunin ke zama tushe a cikin hujjar jarin, ba hukuncin a kanta ba.
Shin wannan ba izini bane na kada ku taɓa kashe komai?
Hujjar adalci — saboda haka ne ainihin yadda aka yi amfani da zaɓuɓɓukan gaske. A cikin tashin arziki na ƙarshen shekarun 1990, yaren zaɓi ya zama maganin duniya ga mummunan shari'ar kasuwanci: kowanne shiri da ke haifar da asara za a iya kare shi a matsayin 'siyan zaɓi akan makomar.' Idan NPV ya ce a'a amma zaɓin ya ce watakila, zaɓin koyaushe yana lashe taron, kuma tsarin yana rushewa cikin taurari tare da haruffan Girka.
Matsalar tana juyawa ka'idar. Zaɓi yana da ƙima ne kawai saboda yana da sharuɗɗan amfani — zaɓin kuɗi yana bayyana daidai lokacin da kuma a wane farashi zai canza ko ya ƙare. Zaɓin gaske yana samun ƙimarsa ta wannan hanyar: zaɓin faɗaɗawa yana buƙatar masu tayar da hankali, kuma fiye da komai, zaɓin barin yana buƙatar ƙa'idodin kashewa — sharuɗɗan musamman, masu ganewa wanda ƙarƙashin su aikin zai tsaya — an yanke shawara yayin da tsayawa har yanzu yana da arha. Kafawa waɗannan ƙa'idodin kafin lokaci shine kuma mafi kyawun kariya daga maimaita juyin da ka'idar tsammani ke hasashen lokacin da aikin ya fara jujjuyawa. Zaɓi ba tare da ƙarewa da kuma farashi ba ba zaɓi bane; fata ce tare da layin kasafin kuɗi.
Zabi Tunani a matsayin Tsarin Huja
Cire lissafi kuma zaɓuɓɓukan gaske wani fanni ne game da kiyaye zaɓuɓɓuka a fili — wanda shine matsalar muhawara kafin ya zama matsalar ƙima. 'Jira watanni shida' dole ne ya kasance a matsayin zaɓi na gaske a cikin shawarar, tare da hujjoji masu goyon baya da masu kai hari, ko kuma tsarin yanzu-ko-kada ya lashe ta tsohuwa. Dole ne a nuna shaidar matakin sadaukarwa a matsayin ikirari masu bayyana — 'muna ci gaba ne kawai idan X' — wanda wani zai iya riƙe aikin a gaba. Dole ne a rubuta ka'idodin kashewa kafin a kawo farashin da aka riga aka yi.
Wannan shine ainihin abin da itace itace mai tsari ke yi: zaɓuɓɓuka suna ci gaba da kasancewa a matsayin reshe maimakon mutuwa a taron, sharuɗɗan aiki suna rayuwa a matsayin ikirarin bayyananne tare da bukatun shaidar, kuma rajistar yanke shawara tana tuna abin da aka yi alkawari a kowanne ƙofa. Hakan yana daidai da tunanin da Jeff Bezos ke gudanarwa tare da kofofi guda ɗaya da biyu — daidaita juyin alkawarin da tsaurin da ya dace — an tsara shi cikin tsari da dukkan ƙungiyar za ta iya gani.
Hanyar: Sanya Sunan Zabi Kafin Tafi/ Kada Tafi
Kafin ka yanke shawara mai mahimmanci a gaba, ƙara layin ajanda guda ɗaya: wane nau'in zaɓi ne wannan, a gaskiya? Duka ko komai, ko kuma mai matakai? Shin akwai zaɓin jinkiri, kuma menene farashin jiran a kan bayyana? Idan muka ci gaba, wane zaɓin faɗaɗa ne zai buɗe — kuma wane zaɓin barin dole ne mu kiyaye farashi da gaskiya?
Sannan a tilasta shigar da abubuwa guda biyu cikin jerin zaɓuɓɓukan da tsarin yanzu-ko-kada ya ƙalwaysa: 'yi alkawari daga baya tare da ƙarin bayani' (zaɓin jinkiri, tare da farashinsa an ambata) da 'yi alkawari ƙasa, ajiye ƙofar' (zaɓin tsarawa, tare da mai tayar da shi an ambata). Mafi yawan muhawarar go/no-go suna canzawa idan waɗannan biyu suna kan tebur a matsayin manyan zaɓuɓɓuka maimakon rashin ƙarfin gwiwa.
Tambayar Gwaji
Zaɓi manyan ayyukan ka guda uku da kake yi a cikin jirgi. Nawa daga cikinsu ne kowa zai iya bayyana sharuɗɗan da aka yarda da su kafin wanda za ka yi watsi da su? Zaɓin watsi wanda ba kowa zai iya ambatawa ba zaɓi ne da ba ka da shi a gaskiya.
Me za a yi da wannan
Rarraba zaɓin kafin a kimanta aikin
Jinkirta, mataki, faɗaɗa, ƙara, barin, canza. Nau'in yana tantance abin da shawarar take — da abin da takardar lissafi ya kamata ta zama.
Saka 'jira' a cikin jerin zaɓuɓɓuka tare da farashi
Jinkiri yana da farashi da kuma fa'idar bayani. Yin duka biyu a fili ya fi kyau fiye da barin gaggawa ta yi kama da bincike.
Sanya komai da za a iya sanya a mataki
Wani ƙofa da ke iyakance rashi yayin da yake kiyaye riba yawanci yana da darajar kuɗin gudanarwarsa — wannan shine darasin Merck gaba ɗaya.
Rubuta sharuɗɗan dakatarwa tun lokacin da aikin ke cikin riba
Sharuɗɗan barin da aka yarda da su a lokacin fara wasan ba su da wani farashi don bayyana, kuma komai don yin ƙoƙari daga baya, lokacin da tsoron asara ya mallaki dakin.
Riƙe ƙofofin a cikin rajistar yanke shawara
Yanayin motsa jiki na iya tsaurara kowa idan an rubuta su inda dole ne a fuskanci su a gaba.
Kofar da Kake Barin a Buɗe
Hankalin Merck ba ya taɓa zama game da Black-Scholes. Abin da ya fi dacewa shine cewa hanyar bincike — kamar taswirar hanya, kamar dabaru — ba yanke shawara guda ba ne amma wani tsarin hakkin yanke shawara daga baya, kuma waɗannan hakkin suna da darajar kuɗi na gaske saboda makomar tana da hazo. Lissafin ya ƙayyade hazo; ƙwarewar tana cikin girmama ƙofofin.
Yawancin ƙungiyoyi suna yin akasin haka sau biyu: suna tilasta yin fare a matakai ta hanyar takardun lissafi na yanzu ko ko da yaushe, suna kashe kyawawan zaɓuɓɓuka tun daga haihuwa — sannan suna barin ayyukan da suka tsira su gudana ba tare da kofa ba har abada, saboda babu wanda ya rubuta lokacin da za a tsaya. Kimanta sassaucin. Sannan ka riƙe kanka ga sharuɗɗan sa.
Kunna ƙofar a bude yana da shawara ma. Yanke shawara akan hakan da niyya.
Hanyoyin Koyo & Karin Karatu
Takardar da ta kirkiro 'zaɓuɓɓukan gaske': darajar kamfani a matsayin kadarorin da ke wurin tare da zaɓuɓɓukan ci gaba
CFO na Merck kan amfani da nazarin zaɓi don kimanta binciken magunguna na matakai.
Cikakken tsarin, gami da dalilin da ya sa 'zuba jari lokacin da NPV ke da kyau' ba daidai bane ga zuba jari marasa juyawa da za a iya jinkirta.
Zaɓin farashin tushe da Myers ya faɗaɗa zuwa ga kadarorin gaske
Tsarin maimaitawa na wannan ra'ayi: daidaita tsananin sadaukarwa da yadda ƙofar take da wahalar bude ta.
Tambayoyi da ake yawan yi
Menene nazarin zaɓuɓɓukan gaskiya?
Nazarin zaɓuɓɓukan gaske yana ƙimar da jarin dabaru a matsayin zaɓuɓɓuka: hakkin, amma ba wajibi ba, na ɗaukar wani aiki na gaba — faɗaɗa, jinkirta, mataki, rage, canza, ko barin — yayin da rashin tabbas ke warwarewa. An ƙirƙiri wannan kalmar ne ta Stewart Myers a shekarar 1977, yana amfani da tsarin farashin zaɓin kuɗi (Black-Scholes-Merton) ga kadarorin gaske. Babban ikonsa: sassauci yana da ƙima mai auna wanda hanyoyin ƙimar duka ko komai ke watsi da shi.
Ta yaya zaɓin gaske ya bambanta da NPV?
Standard NPV yana daukar zuba jari a matsayin yanzu-ko-kada a cikin zuciya da gudanarwa a matsayin mai shagala bayan an yi alkawari — don haka rashin tabbas yana rage darajar. Real options yana daukar gudanarwa a matsayin mai daidaitawa: idan zaka iya tsara, jinkirta, ko daina, to, ragin yana da iyaka yayin da ribar ke nan, don haka rashin tabbas na iya kara darajar damar. Dixit da Pindyck sun nuna cewa don zuba jari da ba za a iya juyawa ba amma za a iya jinkirta, 'zuba jari duk lokacin da NPV ya kasance mai kyau' ba daidai bane, saboda yin alkawari yau yana lalata zaɓin yin alkawari gobe tare da ingantaccen bayani.
Menene manyan nau'ikan zaɓuɓɓukan gaske?
Nau'in guda shida na al'ada: zaɓin jinkirta (jira bayanai), don mataki (zuba jari a cikin matakai masu rufe, kowanne yana sayen hakkin ci gaba), don faɗaɗa (ƙara girma idan sakamakon yana da kyau), don ragewa (raguwa cikin kyan gani), don barin (tsayawa da ceto), da canza (canza abubuwan shigarwa, fitarwa, ko dandamali). Rarrabe wane zaɓi hukuncin ya ƙunsa yawanci yana da ƙima fiye da daidaita farashinsa daidai.
Menene misalin duniya na tunanin zaɓuɓɓuka na gaske?
Binciken R&D na magunguna shine misalin da aka saba. Judy Lewent, CFO na Merck, ta bayyana a wata hira da aka yi a Harvard Business Review a shekarar 1994 yadda kamfanin ya nazarci jarin bincike tare da hanyoyin zaɓi: kowanne mataki na gwaji yana da ƙaramin biyan kuɗi wanda ke sayen haƙƙin — ba wajibi ba — na tallafawa mataki na gaba. Idan aka ƙima shi a matsayin wani babban caca, yawancin shirye-shiryen farko suna bayyana a matsayin waɗanda ba za a iya samun kuɗi ba; idan aka ƙima shi a matsayin jerin zaɓuɓɓuka tare da iyakance rashi, hanyar da ta ƙunshi yawancin gazawa na iya zama mai kyau sosai a hankali.
Menene suka da suka yi wa zaɓuɓɓukan gaske?
Babban abu shine cin zarafi: saboda hujjojin zaɓi suna haifar da ƙima a ƙarƙashin rashin tabbas, an yi amfani da su sosai — musamman a lokacin bunƙasar ƙarshen shekarun 1990 — don tabbatar da ƙoƙari da nazarin da aka ƙi, ba tare da wata ƙa'ida ba. Karewar ka'idar shine cewa ainihin zaɓuɓɓuka suna da sharuɗɗan aiwatarwa: an sanya su a matsayin masu tayar da hankali don faɗaɗa da, a mahimmanci, sharuɗɗan yarda na daina. "Ainihin zaɓi" ba tare da ƙarewa da kuma bugun jini ba shine kawai fata. Hujjojin da suka shafi ingancin samfurin suma suna aiki — shigarwa kamar canjin suna da wahalar kimanta don ainihin kadarori — wanda shine dalilin da yasa ƙa'idar inganci yawanci take da mahimmanci fiye da ƙimar.
Ta yaya za ku yi amfani da tunanin zaɓuɓɓukan gaske ba tare da lissafi ba?
Hanyoyi uku suna ɗaukar mafi yawan ƙimar. Na farko, sanya sunan nau'in zaɓi kafin kowanne go/no-go: shin wannan yana iya zama a mataki, a jinkirta, ko a bar shi? Na biyu, tilasta 'yarda daga baya tare da ƙarin bayani' da 'yarda kaɗan, a riƙe ƙofa' a cikin jerin zaɓuɓɓuka a matsayin zaɓuɓɓuka na farko tare da farashi da aka sanya. Na uku, rubuta ƙa'idodin barin a lokacin fara — yayin da tsayawa har yanzu yana da arha kuma ba tare da jin daɗi ba — kuma a riƙe su a cikin rajistar yanke shawara don kowanne bita na ƙofa a riƙe su.
Ta yaya zaɓuɓɓukan gaske ke da alaƙa da ƙofofin Bezos na hanya ɗaya da hanyoyi biyu?
Suna da irin wannan fahimta a matakai daban-daban na tsari. Ka'idar Bezos — yanke shawara mai juyawa (kofa mai hanyoyi biyu) ya kamata a yi su da sauri da arha, yanke shawara mara juyawa (kofa mai hanya guda) a hankali da kulawa — yana nufin zaɓuɓɓukan gaske a matsayin hanyar tunani: juyawa shine abin da ke kiyaye zaɓuɓɓukanka, don haka yana tantance yawan bincike da wani alƙawari ya cancanta. Binciken zaɓuɓɓukan gaske yana ƙara matakin ƙima: yana tantance abin da wannan juyawa ke da daraja da kuma tsara shi tare da sharuɗɗan aiwatarwa na musamman.
Argumentree Team
Decision Intelligence
The Argumentree team explores the science of better decisions—from 18th-century mathematics to modern AI.
Sauran Kuɗin Stack
Zaɓin gaskiya wani kyalkyali ne na gyara akan kayan aikin yanke shawara na kuɗi. Wadannan suna rufe sauran.
Abin da ba za a iya gaya maka ba game da ragin kuɗin shigar da kuma yadda za a yi muhawara da takardar lissafi
Ka'ida ta sarkar da ke sanya 'sadaukar da kai ga aiki' — da kuma ka'idodin kashewa — zama muhimmin abu na farko.
Kofa ɗaya da kofa biyu: juyawa a matsayin babban canji na tsaurin yanke shawara
Ka ci gaba da kula da zaɓuɓɓukan ka — a cikin rajista.
Argumentree na riƙe 'jira' da 'mataki' a matsayin ainihin reshe, sharuɗɗan ƙofa a matsayin ikirarin bayyananne, da kuma ƙa'idodin kashewa a cikin rikodin yanke shawara da za a fuskanci a duba mai zuwa.
Fara Gwaji Kyauta na Kwana 14 →